Level II Avalanche Course Guidelines
COURSE OBJECTIVES
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A student that successfully completes a course developed using the following guidelines should be able to:
- Understand variability and complexity of avalanche terrain;
- Identify grain types and the basic physical processes leading to them;
- Perform and interpret common stability tests; and
- Apply objective decision making methods while travelling through avalanche terrain.
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| COURSE PREREQUISITES |
Everyone enrolling in a Level II Avalanche course should have completed a Level I Avalanche course. The previous course work should include a full 2- or 3- day Level I course. An evening or 1-day awareness class is not adequate. Inadequate preparation will reduce the effectiveness of the Level II course in furthering your avalanche education. In addition, students not adequately prepared for a Level II course reduce the ability of other students to learn because instructors must bring them up to speed. Finally, a student that has not had a course in recent years should consider a Level I course as a refresher before taking a Level II course.
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| SUGGESTED READINGS |
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These references should be read before taking a Level II Avalanche course. They provide background information that will allow students to learn more while taking the course. Some of the material will already be familiar to you, however, it will provide an excellent review that will allow you to tackle more difficult and new concepts. Some of the advanced material will be more easily understood in the class if you have already been exposed to it. These books are available in your local library, bookstore, or mountain shop.
The Avalanche Handbook.(1993)2nd ed., D. McClung and P. Schaerer, The Mountaineers, Seattle, WA, 271 pp.
Avalanche Safety for Skiers and Climbers.(1999)2nd ed., T. Daffern, Mountaineers, Seattle, 192 pp.
Snow Sense: a guide to evaluating snow avalanche hazard.(1994) 4th ed, S. Fredston and D. Fesler, Alaska Mountain Safety Center, Anchorage, Alaska, 115 pp.
The Snowy Torrents - Avalanche Accidents in the United States:1980-1986. (1996) N. Logan and D. Atkins, Colorado Geological Survey Special Publication 39, Denver, CO, 265 pp.
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CLASSROOM SESSIONS
(not more than 50% of the total class time) |
Weather
- Wind
- Orographic and convective precipitation
- Local topographic effects
- Temperature
Snow in the Atmosphere
- Basic forms
- Riming
- Surface hoar
Development of the Snowpack
- Basic definitions
- Depth
- Density
- Temperature gradient
- Bonds
- Energy balance of the snowpack
- Short wave radiation
- Long wave radiation
- Ground heat flux
- Aspect/elevation/regional effects
- Initial metamorphism
- Change of atmospheric forms on the Earth's surface
- Equilibrium processes
- Kinetic processes
- Critical temperature gradient (10C/10 cm)
- Squares/facets
- Depth hoar
- Near-surface faceted growth
- Shear strength versus compressive strength
- Melt/Freeze
- Isothermal snowpack
- Melting bonds
- Mountain snowpack development
- Layering
- Weak layers
- Depth hoar, surface hoar, near-surface faceted grains
- Persistence in the snowpack
- Strong layers
- Bed surfaces, slabs, crusts, ice lenses
- Changes in time and space
- Short-term and seasonal changes
- Local and regional scales
- Typical scenarios and notable exceptions
Avalanche Phenomenon
- Basic definitions
- Loose snow avalanches
- Slab - soft and hard avalanches
- Wet snow avalanches
- Release mechanisms
- Point releases
- Slab releases
- Strength versus stress
- Strain and strain rates
- Failure/fracture
- Deficit zones
Terrain Analysis
- Basic topography review
- Slope angle
- Starting zone, track, runout zone
- Vegetation
- Identification of avalanche terrain and safe terrain
- Summer and winter evidence
- Seasonal dependence - winter versus spring
- Regional dependence - continental, intermountain, maritime climates
Stability Evaluation
- Snowpack
- Field observations
- Snow pits/hasty pits
- Observed activity
- Weather
- Seasonal development of the snowpack
- Recent and current weather- how is it affecting the snowpack now?
- Forecasted weather - how will it affect current conditions?
- Contributory factors with regional dependence on factors
- Terrain
- Is it steep enough to slide?
- Avalanche hazard ratings
Human Factors and Risk Assessment
- Definitions of risk, hazard and perception
- Individual behavior
- Effects of experience, equipment and training
- Group behavior
- Small groups - 2 to 4 members
- Large groups - 5+ members
- Attitudes and behavior that affects risk perception and risk-taking
- Managing risk
- Typical scenarios that can lead to problems
- What to do to prevent problems
Decision Making
- Applying stability evaluation
- Effective use of terrain
- Avoiding dangerous areas
- Minimizing exposure
- Applying effective decision methodology (e.g. red, yellow, green light days or 3x3 method)
- Communication
- Dynamic process - need for continual reevaluation
- Scenarios and case studies - big mistakes with alternative solutions
- Backcountry decision exercise - group effort
Rescue
- Self-rescue
- What to do if you are caught
- Companion rescue
- What to do if someone else is caught
Beacons
- Recovery versus rescue
- How they work conventional and digital display
- Basic search techniques
- Initial search
- Tangent and/or grid
- Pinpoint
- Multiple victim search techniques
- Survival statistics
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FIELD SESSIONS
(not less than 50% of the total course time) |
Representative location for evaluations
Full Pits
- Stratigraphy
- Temperature - temperature gradients
- Strength/stability tests
- Hand hardness
- Shovel shear
- Rutschblock
- Stuffblock
- Tap (compression) test
- Others...
- Identification of weak layers
Hasty Pits
- Identification of weak layers
- Strength tests
Data Collection and Recording - field notes
Backcountry Travel Awareness - tests on the move
- Observation of red flags - fractures, whumphing, ski pole penetration, etc.
Continual Re-evaluation of Situation/Hazard
Beacon Practice - including multiple burials
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| EVALUATIONS |
At the end of the program, students should be able to:
- Understand variability and complexity of avalanche terrain
- Identify grain types and processes leading to them
- Perform and interpret common stability tests
- Apply objective decision making methods while travelling through avalanche terrain
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